For more than 160 years, lead batteries have operated efficiently to provide dependable energy storage for multiple industries and applications. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) includes lead batteries among storage technologies receiving high-profile attention for grid-level energy storage. Advantages of lead batteries include fundamental safety, low-temperature stability, cost-effective and globally abundant raw materials, and a near 100 percent recycling rate. With research investments, lead batteries could achieve $0.075/kWh to $0.097/kWh over the next seven years.
Through a strong domestic infrastructure and circular economy, lead batteries are a safe, reliable, sustainable and economically viable energy storage solution. The successful circular economy of the lead battery industry has become a model for other battery chemistries in responsibly sourcing, using, reusing and managing materials.
Lead Battery Recycling
An estimated 1 million tons of lead were recycled in the United States in 2023, and lead batteries are the most recycled consumer product, with a nearly 100 percent recycling rate. A new lead battery is typically comprised of 80 percent recycled material.
U.S. lead battery manufacturers source approximately 83 percent of lead from recycling facilities in North America. Using secondary lead instead of ore reduces CO2 emissions by 99 percent.
The combination of high recyclability and a domestic supply chain means that lead batteries have a significantly smaller impact on our environment while simplifying manufacturing and reducing costs. The circular economy of the lead battery industry is predicted to generate $4.5 trillion of additional economic output by 2030.
Domestic Lead Battery Manufacturing
Annual North American lead battery manufacturing capacity is more than 206 GWh. Researchers anticipate that approximately 930 GW, with an average duration ranging from 4.7 to 6.5 hours, will be needed to meet the increasing demand for electricity in the U.S. Additional investments will be needed to unlock the potential of lead batteries to improve their cycle life and energy density. The requirements for lead battery technology could reach the DOE levelized cost of storage target with one-fifth the budget necessary for lithium.
Prioritizing investments in lead battery technology has significant benefits for the country. The battery industry enables nearly 20 percent of the U.S. economy, contributing almost $33 billion in overall economic output domestic product and spending $3 billion annually on payroll.
Over 90% of lead batteries sold in the U.S. are manufactured in North America, but this number is shrinking due to low-cost imports.
Risks to the Lead Battery Industry’s Circular Economy
While the lead battery industry’s circular economy has set the standard for other battery technologies, this infrastructure is at risk. An estimated 400,000-ton gap exists between demand and domestic supply of recycled lead. Many recycling facilities could add capacity but are hesitant because of regulations. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency sets guidelines, but each state determines how to enforce those regulations. More uniform oversight among the states would help as battery recyclers make business decisions regarding capacity.
Without enough recycled lead, supply will need to come from primary sources – lead mines. While the U.S. is the world’s third-largest lead mining country, with an estimated 270,000 tons of recoverable lead mined state-side in 2023, the last primary lead smelter in the U.S. closed in December 2013. Rather than exporting scrap, which increases the potential for disruption by stretching the supply chain and leads to higher costs to the manufacturers and higher prices for the consumer, the lead battery industry must ensure that spent batteries remain within the domestic supply chain.
Lead is not the only component at risk within this closed-loop system. Antimony is used in the lead battery grids to improve performance by improving corrosion resistance and reducing self-discharge rates. The U.S. consumed 23,000 tons of antimony in 2023, with 18 percent of that demand met through lead battery recycling. Over 60 percent of this critical mineral is imported from China. Supplies tightened and prices surged after China banned the export of antimony and other critical minerals to the U.S., effective December 2024.
Owning the Circular Economy to Ensure Energy Security
Today, lead battery recyclers and materials recovery facilities already see lithium batteries in their streams. There is an opportunity to utilize the lead industry’s established service and distribution network to collect and direct lithium batteries to an appropriate recycling stream.
As lithium battery technology is more widely adopted, the need for lithium battery recycling becomes a serious concern. While lithium is thought to be a more sustainable battery chemistry than lead, the recycling rate for lithium batteries is less than five percent. Department of Energy (DOE) research indicates that recycled material could potentially provide one-third of the United States cathode material needed for lithium batteries by 2030.
By minimizing the export of spent lead batteries and building lithium recycling, the U.S. will have the critical materials needed to further strengthen the domestic lead battery industry and develop U.S.-based lithium battery manufacturing.
